For instance, industrial import goods are in competition with traditional crafts; terms of trade deteriorate; capital is being transferred, etc. The direction of processes depends on the initial situation and the factors causing the change.
Under the conditions in developing countries, increased regional dualism often is a consequence of such processes of circular causation.
In the dualism and economic strategy theories discussed so far, underdevelopment and development are explained by economic factors alone while individual or group values and motivations are neglected. The social-psychological theories consider these very factors as main determinants of underdevelopment and development. Thus, they add a new component to the discussion. Because they reduce the causes to aspects of one discipline, like economic theories, they are partial explanations as well.
Because of its determination of the value systems of societies, he put primary importance on religion. According to Weber, the Protestant religion was a precondition for capitalistic development for two reasons: Protestant ethics led to an ascetic life style which, instead of advocating affluence, reinvested the proceeds. As well, it is the basis of rationalism and goal achievement behaviour. While a value system which motivates economic development can hardly be limited to Protestantism Weber's stress on values and the resulting motivation influenced later thought.
If a traditional undifferentiated society experiences economic growth and economic differentiation as a result of external inputs, this leads to unrest. The desire to do well to attain an inner feeling of personal accomplishment is the pre-requisite for innovative activity 1. HAGEN 8 Following McClelland's concept that a level of development is correlated with achievement motivation, Hagen tried to explain why this achievement motivation varies between societies and their classes and strata.
He argues that in traditional societies the status of individuals is fixed. Children learn to act according to established norms, and deviations initiative! If by external influences a new group gains power, the status of the old elite is challenged and weakened. The insecurity and frustration leads to changed behaviour which has consequences on the family structure. Children tend to become dissatisfied with the society and readily accept new values.
In time, they become innovative personalities. If these persons become dominant groups in the society, this causes economic development. Similar phenomena may happen as far as the changing situation of marginal groups or minorities is concerned.
According to dependence theories, the cause of underdevelopment is the dependence on industrialized countries while internal factors of developing countries are considered irrelevant or seen as symptoms and consequences of dependence. The development of industrialized countries and the underdevelopment of developing countries are parts of one historical process. Developing countries are dependent countries. The economic and political interests of industrialized countries determine their development or underdevelopment.
The goals are superimposed. Underdevelopment is not backwardness but intentional downward development. As to the causes of dependence, the various theories differ, economic factors always dominating. External trade theories concentrate on economic relations between countries. Imperialism theories stress the politicoeconomic interest while dependencia theories concentrate on the deformation of internal structures by dependence which perpetuates the situation.
Dependence theories concentrate on explanations of the genesis of underdevelopment and pay little attention to strategies for overcoming this situation. Implicit development here means liberation, end of structural dependence, and independence. The structure of supply and demand in industrialized and developing countries is such that industrialized countries are able to reap the benefits from international trade. This transfer of resources makes development impossible, and these unequal trade relations are seen as the reasons for underdevelopment.
PREBISCH24 The structure of supply and demand is such that industrialized countries offer industrial products and buy raw products and the developing industries do the reverse.
According to Engel's law, the demand for raw materials tends to be inelastic while the demand for industrialized goods is elastic. The technological progress in the production of industrialized goods not only makes it possible for industrial countries to increase their incomes and thus the standard of living, but, because of the elastic demand on the world market, also to enforce higher prices.
The situation in developing countries is the opposite: technological progress in primary production results in lower prices because of the inelastic demand. This mechanism leads to deteriorating exchange relations between industrialized and developing countries and, as well, between the industrialized and the agricultural sector in developing countries.
BHAGWATI2 This theory follows the argumentation of the theory of circular deterioration of terms of trade and concludes that countries, in order to improve their balance of trade, have to increase their exports to compensate for falling prices. This means a further deterioration of terms of trade.
The unchanged structure of supply intensifies the structural dependency and, regardless of growth, there is no development but only 'immiserizing growth. The imperialism theory explains the domination of underdeveloped areas by industrialized countries as the consequence of different economic and technological levels and unequal power potential resulting from a different economic growth.
The consequence of the development of industrial capitalistic societies is a pressure for expansion which may lead to military or political acquisition colonies or to maintaining economic dependence developing countries. Different theories have their own explanation of the reason for the pressure for expansion but it is always seen as the result of the inability to cope internally with the consequences of permanent technological innovation and their effects on the society.
Here, the autochthon production and markets are being destroyed and, thus, unemployment is exported to underdeveloped areas. Lenin in addition assumed a decrease of investment possibilities and, therefore, of profit rate in industrialized countries. Thus, capital is being exported in order to maximize profits. In the underdeveloped areas, this capital is invested, not according to the needs of these countries, but according to the interests of industrial countries.
The profit is transferred to the industrial countries whose development is based on the exploitation of underdevelopment areas. New imperialism theories therefore, postulate the dependency theorem with a new explanation of exploitative relations. The new phase of relation between industrialized and developing countries can be called technological-industrial dependence. Industrial countries invest in the production and export of raw materials in developing countries, influence with their potential of power the terms of trade in their favour, and thus perpetuate the international division of labour.
While imperialism is seen as a phenomenon of capitalism and these theories are based on Marxian concepts, the fact remains, nevertheless, that communist countries also participate in the exploitation of developing countries by accepting the advantages of the world market.
The multitude of approaches1 combined under the heading 'Depen-dencia' like imperialism theories are based on the assumption of an external dependency of developing countries which makes exploitation possible.
However, while imperialism theories hold the dependence relation to be directly responsible for the exploitation of developing countries, the dependencia theories develop this concept further.
They postulate that external dependencies lead to an internal structural deformation which perpetuates the external dependency. The process started with the political and military dependency of colonies which have been exploited through the destruction of the indigenous life style and culture, economic extraction, and forced integration into the international division of labour.
This asymmetric integration caused structural changes in the peripheral societies: an economy oriented towards the requirements of he industrial countries and a functional dependency of the traditional sector on this export-oriented sector.
The dynamics of reproduction of the modern sector in developing countries are similar to those of industrialized countries, thus leading to an extreme stratification, i. Elites accept the norms and values of the industrialized countries and cooperate in maintaining a status quo. The deformation of the economic and social system leads to structural heterogeneity: rich elites and marginal masses, the destruction of traditional economy oriented towards fulfilling the internal needs.
Thus, the centre-periphery relationship reproduces itself within developing countries. Between metropolis and rural hinterland, relations are similar to those existing between industrial and developing countries. Underdevelopment, from this point of view, is not a phase on the way to industrialization but rather a consequence of capitalism.
In its concentration on external factors, possible internal conditions are neglected or considered irrelevant. Examples of countries with limited external contacts, like Nepal, Thailand, and Ethiopia, cast doubt on the general applicability of this partial explanation. Dependencia theories do not concentrate on strategies for development beyond the demand for structural changes, independence, and participation. Development should take place on the basis of local resources. This dissociation should not be understood as autarkic.
It allows for a certain degree of cooperation, a selective relation to industrialized countries. The goal is a reformation of the internal social and economic structure and, afterwards, re-entry in the international relations under conditions of equal rights.
The way to reach this goal is via a self- reliance policy, i. While this line of thinking is obviously based on the Chinese and Tanzanian experiences, it is on a high level of abstraction with pre- conditions which are difficult to fulfil and rather weak for concrete application. It has more the character of a goal vision that of a strategy for implementation.
All the theories discussed in the last chapter are only partial theories. They explain certain aspects but do not fully explain the cause of underdevelopment.
The explanation is more adequate for certain historical situations and specific conditions of production while they are less relevant for others. They offer a strategy for overcoming the prevailing situation and initiating development which may be suitable under certain economic and social conditions but are not applicable to others. A general theory of development is still lacking. Drawing up such a general theory is indeed a difficult task; it would have to include an explanation of underdevelopment for different countries; an explanation of the development process of industrialized coun tries; and a strategy for overcoming underdevelopment in developing coun tries.
As well, it would have to include all relevant disciplines and their interdependence; the different levels at which development takes place, from the local to the international level; the processes and relations between the different sectors and strata of society and economy; and the international dimensions of the development process. While the system theory opens up the possibility of organizing such a vast theoretical body, the activities of different researchers hitherto have not yet been successful.
Even in the absence of a concise theory to guide political activities, decision-makers must have some yardsticks to measure whether their strategies and tools will achieve the goals of the society. Here, goals play an important role. While, in detail, the question of goals in the development process is a political question, and difference of opinion and conflict are possible, at a high level of abstraction, universal agreement seems to be possible.
It is widely agreed that preservation of human dignity and fulfilment of basic needs are the foremost duties of every society. While there is wide agreement on this goal, differences of opinion exist on the question of the degree to which these basics should be supplied and, as well, how they should be supplied.
These differences allow for different paths of development. From the common denominator "basic needs," one can deduct five basic goals of development: economic growth to secure food and other requirements for the population; social justice to reduce inequality; employment as means of earning an income but, as well, because of its ethical and social value; participation as political involvement and social sharing; independence as freedom from external domination.
While individual societies may have different opinions on the priorities of these goals, in the absence of a general theory of development; one can use the criterion of fulfilment of these goals as a yardstick in development. Development is then understood as a simultaneous progress towards these five goals.
Boeke, J. Bhagwati, J. Immiserizing Growth. Bonnet, M. Konflikte zwischcn Industrie - und Entwick- lungslandern Munchen , 4. Eckaus, R. FEI, J. Galtung, J. Eine strukturelle Theorie des Imperialismus in: Senghaas, D. Imperialismus und strukturelle Gewalt, Frankfurt , Gannage, E. Economicdu Developement, Paris Hirschman, A. Jorgenson, D. Kebschull, D. Entwicklungspolitik, Eine Einfuhrung, Dusseldorf A Note on Dualistic Models, Dept.
Paper No. Lenin, W. Der Imperialismus als hochstes Stadium des Kapitalismus, Berlin Lewis, W. The Theory of Economic Growth, London Luxemburg, R. Die Akkumulation des Kapitals, Berlin Me Clelland, D. The Achieving Society, Princeton Mellor, J. Myint, H. Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. Obi Innocent. A short summary of this paper. Download Download PDF. Translate PDF. But the reality of our world today informs that three categories exist in profiling nations.
But the questions now are these: when we talk about development and underdevelopment what exactly do we mean? Do we really have a nation that is fully developed in all ramifications of life? Or on what grounds do we conclude that this country is developed and the other is underdeveloped? This paper however seeks to discuss concept of development and explicitly showing the various dimensions of development. What has been happening to unemployment?
What has been happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels, then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned. This invariably means that a rise in any one of these central challenges disqualifies that society from being called developed.
It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of development. In the book, Rodney asserts that development in human society is a many sided process. And that what development implies at level of individual differs from what it implies at level of social groups. According to him, development at level of individual implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being.
While development at the level of social groups, implies an increasing capacity to regulate both internal and external relationships. He adds that development in the past has always meant the increase in the ability to guard the independence of the social group and indeed to infringe upon the freedom of others - something that often came about irrespective of the will of the persons within the societies involved.
The tools with which men work and the manner, in which they organize their labour, Rodney argues, are important indices of social development. This capacity for dealing with the environment is dependent on the extent to which they understand the laws of nature science , on the extent to which they put that understanding into practice by devising tools technology , and on the manner in which work is organised.
He equally observes that there has been constant economic development within human society since the origins of man, because man has multiplied enormously his capacity to win a living from nature. Africa, being the original home of man, was obviously a major participant in the processes in which human groups displayed an ever increasing capacity to extract a living from the natural environment.
Indeed, in the early period, Africa was the focus of the physical development of man as such, as distinct from other living beings. It is on this basis Rodney argued that development was universal because the conditions leading to each economic expansion were universal. Everywhere, man was faced with the task of survival by meeting fundamental material needs; and better tools were a consequence of the interplay between human beings and nature as part of the struggle for survival.
This explains why average bourgeoisie scholars often define development as simply a matter of the combination of given factors of production: namely land, population, capital, technology, specialization and large-scale production. For instance, No mention is made of the exploitation of the majority which underlay all development prior to Socialism.
No mention is made of the social relations of production or of classes. No mention is made of the way that the factors and relations of production combine to form a distinctive system or mode of production, varying from one historical epoch to another. No mention is made of imperialism as a logical phase of capitalism.
This is because human social development has been uneven from time immemorial. And the moment that one group appears to be wealthier than others, Rodney says, some enquire is bound to take place as to the reason for the difference.
Accordingly, he says that one of the ideas behind underdevelopment is a comparative one. Apart from the comparative meaning of the term underdevelopment, a second and even more indispensable component of modern underdevelopment, according to Rodney, is that it expresses a particular relationship of exploitation: namely, the exploitation of one country by another. African and Asian societies were developing independently until they were taken over directly or indirectly by the capitalist powers.
Rodney, however, holds the belief that exploitation from external sources is the bane of development in Africa. He means exactly this when he says that the most profound reasons for the economic backwardness of a given Africa nation are not to be found inside that nation. All that we can find inside are symptoms of underdevelopment the secondary factors that make for poverty. In the same manner, he tells us that the capitalists of Western Europe are the ones who actively extend their exploitation from inside Europe to cover the whole of Africa.
They stagnated the economic growth by taking away the productive class from African society thereby laying the foundation for imperialist domination of the continents. Coming from the aforementioned, Rodney concludes that development and underdevelopment are not only comparative terms, but they also have a dialectical relationship with each other because the two concepts help to produce each other by interaction.
This is because there is no period in the history of mankind that records a complete stagnation in culture, politics, economy, religion, education and other social endeavors. The only difference, which of course has been noted by Rodney, is that two societies cannot develop simultaneously in all ramifications of life. That is to say, as human beings battled with the material environment, they created forms of social relations, forms of government, patterns of behaviour and systems of belief which together constituted the superstructure-which was never exactly the same in any two societies.
Development, as we want to argue here, is deeper in meaning than just economic affairs. It exists in other spheres of human life. That is why we can talk about other areas of life in which development also takes place. Rodney relates historical Africa as a collection of vibrant cultures endowed with the subtleties of art, music, religion, knowledge and social relations.
In this respect, we want to stand against his thesis that Europe alone underdeveloped Africa. Though it is the case that Rodney supports his thesis with statistical and historical evidences in his book quoted above but it is not the case that his overall claim is not without a fault. This is because Rodney fails to dwell extensively on the role played by Africans in making slave trade, colonialism, and even neo-colonialism successful adventures for the Europeans.
For instance, history has it that a handful Europeans actually came to Africa to engage in slave trade. The same history also has that by three million slaves had been transported to the Americas on British ships and by between 7 and 10 million Africans had been shipped as slaves to the New World.
Meargre, The question which readily comes to mind in this kind of scenario is: how did these handful Europeans able to capture millions of Africans? One strong clue to the question is that the European slave traders triumphed as a result of the support given them by some Africans. Given this, one would be right to say that if Europe had truly underdeveloped Africa then some wicked and greedy Africans also connived with the Europeans to under develop Africa.
Even in this contemporary time, many African leaders if not all, are regarded as accomplices of neo-colonialism. The reason being that the African leaders, which assumed power after independence continued with the same denigration and oppression of the African people. The term sustainable development came into popular use after the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, popularly known as the Brundtland Report and the Brundtland Commission, respectively.
The report was largely a response to the growing international environmental and ecological lobby. This comprehensive approach does not reflect all approaches to sustainable development.
Nevertheless, a more equitable distribution of existing resources could lead to improvements in the quality of life. Although the above definitions of development are clearly seen to be human-centered, I must immediately chip in the fact that the whole concept of development has not always been egalitarian as we now know it to be.
Before doing any comprehensive and detailed analysis on the concept of development, it is very important to discuss the two main perspectives on development and how these perspectives have shaped the tenets of the concept.
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